With the transmission of numerous Buddhist scriptures and treatises, the thoughts of various Indian Buddhist schools came into contact with Chinese national culture. Through long periods of absorption and assimilation, they achieved creative development. The Sui and Tang periods, from the late 6th century to the mid-9th century CE, marked the golden age of Chinese Buddhism. During this period, theoretical thought experienced new developments, and various schools successively emerged, presenting a flourishing landscape of diverse traditions.
Many Buddhist schools have appeared in China throughout history. The eight major schools currently prevalent are: First, the Faxing School, also known as the Sanlun School. Second, the Faxiang School, also known as the Yogācāra School. Third, the Tiantai School. Fourth, the Xianshou School, also known as the Huayan School. Fifth, the Chan School. Sixth, the Pure Land School. Seventh, the Vinaya School. Eighth, the Esoteric School, also known as the Shingon School. These are commonly referred to as the eight major schools: Faxing, Faxiang, Tiantai, Xianshou, Chan, Pure Land, Vinaya, and Esoteric.
1. Faxing School (Sanlun School)
This school was primarily formed based on the study and transmission of the Madhyamaka-śāstra, Śata-śāstra, and Dvādaśa-dvāra-śāstra translated by Kumārajīva. Because it was established based on these three treatises (lun) of the Madhyamaka school, it is called the Sanlun (Three Treatises) School. Its doctrine takes the Two Truths as its general framework and complete realization of the Middle Way reality as its ultimate goal.
The character “truth” (di) in Two Truths means reality. What follows the fundamental essence of dharma-nature is called Ultimate Truth, while what follows conditioned phenomena is called Conventional Truth. According to Conventional Truth, things exist. According to Ultimate Truth, all dharmas are empty. Therefore, the Two Truths are also called the Two Truths of Emptiness and Existence. “Form is emptiness, emptiness is form” – the non-duality of form and emptiness, and the non-duality of ultimate and conventional, is the Middle Way, also called the true nature of all dharmas. This is the central thought of this school.
This school emphasizes revealing from the perspective of true emptiness that all mundane and supramundane, defiled and pure dharmas arise through dependent origination without inherent nature. The five aggregates, twelve sense bases, etc., are illusory and unreal. By thoroughly eliminating delusion, it establishes the Middle Way view of “nothing to be attained,” seeking to realize its goal of unobstructed liberation. This school is actually the direct inheritor of the Madhyamaka teachings of Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva from India.
2. Faxiang School (Yogācāra School)
The Yogācāra School was founded by Maitreya, Asaṅga, and Vasubandhu in India. This school is primarily based on scriptures such as the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra, Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, and Vijñaptimātratā-śāstra. Because it was established with the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra (personally expounded by Maitreya and recorded by Asaṅga) as its fundamental text, it is called the Yogācāra School. In China, Master Xuanzang translated and transmitted this school and synthesized the teachings of ten masters into the Vijñaptimātratā-śāstra, so this school is also called the Faxiang-Vijñaptimātratā School or Cien School. Its doctrine takes the Five Dharmas, Three Natures, Eight Consciousnesses, and Two Selflessnesses as its general framework, with the transformation of consciousness into wisdom (transformation of basis) as its purpose.
The Five Dharmas are: 1) name, 2) form, 3) discrimination, 4) correct wisdom, 5) suchness. The Three Natures are: parikalpita (imagined nature), paratantra (dependent nature), and pariniṣpanna (perfected nature). The Eight Consciousnesses are: eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness, mental consciousness, seventh manas consciousness, and eighth ālaya consciousness. The Two Selflessnesses are selflessness of persons and selflessness of dharmas.
The Five Dharmas are a summary of all mundane and supramundane dharmas. “Name” and “form” refer to worldly conditioned dharmas that all have names and forms, called dharmas of name and form. “Discrimination” refers to people’s subjective ability to discriminate and cognize things. “Correct wisdom” refers to the pure (undefiled) true wisdom of sages. “Suchness” refers to the true suchness realm that corresponds to such wisdom. The Five Dharmas encompass both defiled and pure, subjective and objective aspects, thus summarizing all dharmas.
The Three Natures: First is grasping at subject-object duality, considering non-existent as existent, giving rise to delusion and creating karma, called parikalpita. Second is the mental dharmas of the three realms that arise dependently through causes and conditions, called paratantra. Third is the two-fold emptiness of true suchness revealed by removing subject-object grasping from dependent arising, called pariniṣpanna. The nature of things does not exceed these three types, so they are called the Three Natures.
The Eight Consciousnesses: “Consciousness” means discriminating cognition, also called mind or thought. Every sentient being has this cognitive function of mind-consciousness, totaling eight types as listed above. The Two Selflessnesses: every sentient being lacks an eternal, unchanging substance (commonly called self or soul) – this is selflessness of persons; objective things also lack a permanent, unchanging substance (inherent nature or absolute reality) – this is selflessness of dharmas. The Two Selflessnesses are also called the two emptinesses of self and dharmas.
This school’s doctrine deeply analyzes the nature and characteristics of all dharmas, elucidates the causes, conditions, substance, and function of mind-consciousness, and cultivates vijñaptimātratā contemplation, hoping to transform consciousness into wisdom and achieve the two fruits of liberation and bodhi. This school was established through Master Xuanzang’s translation and transmission and is the direct inheritor of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu’s teachings from India.
3. Tiantai School
This school is based on the Lotus Sutra, Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra, and Madhyamaka-śāstra translated by Kumārajīva. It absorbed various Indian and Chinese philosophical developments and systematically reorganized them into a comprehensive thought system. Because its founder Zhiyi resided on Mount Tiantai in Zhejiang, it is called the Tiantai School. Its doctrine takes the Five Periods and Eight Teachings as its general framework, with One Mind Three Contemplations and the Perfect Interpenetration of Three Truths as its central thought.
This school divides the Buddha’s teachings into five different periods, called the Five Period Teaching: Huayan Period, Āgama Period, Vaipulya Period, Prajñāpāramitā Period, and Lotus-Nirvana Period. The names of the five periods are all names of Buddhist scriptures, maintaining that the Buddha’s teachings fall within these five periods. From the perspective of doctrinal content, this school divides Buddhism into four different levels from shallow to deep: Tripiṭaka Teaching, Shared Teaching, Distinct Teaching, and Perfect Teaching, called the “Four Teachings of Transformation Method.”
Tripiṭaka Teaching is the Śrāvaka Lesser Vehicle teaching. Shared Teaching connects both Lesser and Greater Vehicles – the elementary level of Mahāyāna that connects with both vehicles is called Shared Teaching. Distinct Teaching is pure Mahāyāna teaching, but because it distinguishes dharmas as separate and obstructed, it is called Distinct Teaching. Perfect Teaching is the Mahāyāna dharma gate of perfect interpenetration without obstruction and perfect completeness, called Perfect Teaching. Tripiṭaka, Shared, Distinct, and Perfect are the four teachings arranged from shallow to deep.
This school also divides the Buddha’s teachings into four types based on different teaching opportunities: sudden, gradual, secret, and indeterminate, called the “Four Teachings of Transformation Method.”
The Three Contemplations are contemplative methods for practice: emptiness contemplation, provisional contemplation, and middle way contemplation. These three contemplations can be achieved in one mind, called One Mind Three Contemplations. Perfect Interpenetration of Three Truths: Ultimate Truth, Conventional Truth, and Middle Way Truth are called the Three Truths. In these Three Truths, mentioning one includes all three; although three, they are always one. Speaking of three or one involves perfect interpenetration without obstruction, so it is called Perfect Interpenetration of Three Truths.
One Mind Three Contemplations and Perfect Interpenetration of Three Truths are the doctrine of Perfect Teaching, explaining the non-obstruction of all dharmas and the perfect interpenetration of principle and phenomena. The Tiantai School considers itself Perfect Teaching while other schools belong to the first three teachings. This school synthesized the thoughts of various schools, precisely adjusted Buddhist doctrine, and developed it into Mahāyāna Perfect Teaching theory, demonstrating China’s original Mahāyāna thought.
4. Xianshou School (Huayan School)
This school is based on the Avatamsaka Sutra and has conducted deep research and brilliant exposition of this sutra. It formed as a thought system based on the development of previous schools’ teachings (Sanlun, Tiantai, Cien, Dilun masters, Shelun masters, etc.). Its founder was National Master Xianshou (Fazang) in the late 7th century, so it is called Xianshou School, also known as Huayan School. This school uses Five Teachings to classify all of Buddhism, with Six Characteristics, Ten Mysteries, and Three Contemplations as its central thought.
The Five Teachings are: 1) Lesser Teaching – Śrāvaka Lesser Vehicle teaching; 2) Initial Teaching – elementary stage doctrine of Mahāyāna’s beginning; 3) Final Teaching – ultimate stage doctrine of Mahāyāna; 4) Sudden Teaching – dharma gate of sudden transcendence and sudden awakening in Mahāyāna; 5) Perfect Teaching – theory of perfect completeness and perfect interpenetration without obstruction. This school divides Buddhism into five different levels of doctrine from shallow to deep, adding one Sudden Teaching compared to Tiantai School, so it is called Five Teachings.
The Six Characteristics are: totality, particularity, sameness, difference, formation, and dissolution. These six characteristics simultaneously manifest in all things and simultaneously manifest in individual things. Whether in all things or individual things, they are mutually complementary, simultaneously complete, mutually interpenetrating, and mutually unobstructed, thus revealing the principle of dharmadhātu dependent origination.
The Ten Mysterious Gates are: 1) Gate of simultaneous completion and correspondence, 2) Gate of Indra’s net realm, 3) Gate of secret concealment and manifest completion, 4) Gate of subtle mutual containment and establishment, 5) Gate of ten times separated dharmas achieving difference, 6) Gate of various treasuries pure and mixed with virtue, 7) Gate of one and many mutually containing yet different, 8) Gate of all dharmas mutually identical and free, 9) Gate of mind-only turning and good completion, 10) Gate of relying on phenomena to manifest dharma and generate understanding.
These Ten Mysterious Gates collectively demonstrate the Huayan teaching’s principles regarding all phenomena: non-obstruction between pure and mixed (defiled and pure), non-obstruction between one and many, non-obstruction between past, present and future, simultaneous completeness, mutual interpenetration and entrance, and endless repetition.
The Three Contemplations are: 1) True emptiness and absolute characteristics contemplation, 2) Non-obstruction between phenomena and principle contemplation, 3) Universal inclusion and interpenetration contemplation. The establishment of Six Characteristics, Ten Mysteries, and Three Contemplations elucidates the Avatamsaka Sutra’sdoctrines of dharmadhātu dependent origination, non-obstruction between principle and phenomena, non-obstruction between phenomena and phenomena, and endless perfect interpenetration.
Six Characteristics and Ten Mysteries refer to the dharmadhātu realm being contemplated, while Perfect Interpenetration Three Contemplations refers to the wisdom capable of contemplation. This thought of endless repetition and dharmadhātu perfect interpenetration, while said to originate from the Avatamsaka Sutra, was actually uniquely created in China. Its teaching of dharmadhātu dependent origination and universal non-obstruction greatly promoted the Mahāyāna thought transmitted from India.
5. Chan School
Chan is an abbreviation of dhyāna, translated into Chinese as “calm contemplation,” meaning contemplation in stillness, generally called meditation (chanding). This method involves concentrating the mind on one dharma object and investigating it with single-minded focus to realize one’s inherent mind-nature. This is called “investigating Chan,” hence the name Chan School.
There are many types of Chan: Śrāvaka Chan, Bodhisattva Chan, gradual Chan, and sudden transcendence Chan. In terms of Chan studies, China has what is called the “separately transmitted outside the teachings” Chan School. What this school practices is not the traditional gradual Chan, but the Patriarch Chan of directly pointing to mind-nature through sudden cultivation and sudden awakening.
This school’s Chan method is said to have been transmitted by Bodhidharma from India in the early 6th century. In the past it was said: “Chan School transmits only the mind-seal, establishing no written words,” called “separate transmission outside the teachings.” However, the First Patriarch Bodhidharma transmitted the four-volume Laṅkāvatāra Sutra to the Second Patriarch Huike as a standard for mind-verification. Hongren and Huineng also taught people to recite the Diamond Prajñāpāramitā. Thus, the Laṅkāvatāra and Prajñāpāramitā became this school’s scriptural basis, followed later by the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch and many “recorded sayings.”
Chan School was very prosperous in China. In the 8th century, it split into Southern and Northern schools. The Northern School of Shenxiu (c. 606-706) advocated gradual cultivation, flourished for a time, but soon declined. The Southern School of Huineng (638-713) advocated sudden awakening. Later generations revered him as the Sixth Patriarch, and his transmission was very prosperous.
From Tang to Song, Southern School Chan masters emerged in great numbers. During these three to four hundred years, it further divided into Five Houses and Seven Schools, showing its flourishing condition. This school, like Pure Land School, has always been among China’s most widely transmitted schools.
Among Sixth Patriarch Huineng’s disciples, there were two major lineages: Nanyue Huairang (667-744) and Qingyuan Xingsi (?-740). From these two lineages came the division into Five Schools and Seven Schools. From Nanyue first came the Guiyang School, then the Linji School. The Qingyuan Xingsi lineage produced three schools: Caodong School, Yunmen School, and Fayan School, making Five Schools from two lineages. Later, the Linji School split into Huanglong and Yangqi branches, combined with the previous five schools to make Seven Schools. All flourished for a time, then after some period, some disappeared.
Later Chan School only had Linji and Caodong schools transmitting continuously, with Linji School being particularly prosperous. All modern Chan School descendants are disciples of Linji and Caodong schools.
In Buddhism’s practice of meditation, there are methods for regulating body and breath, calming mind and sitting quietly, which can strengthen the body, cure illness and extend life. However, these are not the purpose of Buddhist Chan meditation. Buddhism cultivates Chan contemplation (including contemplation practices of various schools) to concentrate the mind in one place, investigate truth, hoping to manifest wisdom and thoroughly see dharma-nature – this is called “illuminating mind and seeing nature,” liberation and freedom. As for sitting meditation, it is only the form or foundation of Chan practice. Curing illness and extending life are merely byproducts of Chan contemplation practice. Buddhism does not specifically promote these as goals. However, beginners in sitting meditation must understand these basic methods of regulating body and breath to maintain healthy physical and mental states, avoid Chan illness, and ensure smooth progress in Chan contemplation practice.
6. Pure Land School
This school is based on the Sukhāvatīvyūha Sutra and others, advocating Buddha contemplation and Buddha recitation to seek rebirth in Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land, hence called Pure Land School. This school divides the Buddha’s teachings into two paths: the Difficult Path and the Easy Path. It explains that other schools’ reliance on precepts, concentration, and wisdom to cultivate the six perfections and myriad practices, requiring three great asaṃkhyeya kalpas, is the Difficult Path. It explains that the Pure Land dharma gate of sincere Buddha recitation throughout one life, relying on Amitābha Buddha’s vow power at the time of death to be reborn in the Pure Land with no retrogression, is the Easy Path. Therefore, this school advocates encouraging people to recite Buddha’s name seeking rebirth in the Western Pure Land paradise.
This school’s characteristics are simplicity, ease of practice, and universal ability to embrace society’s masses. Studying this school does not necessarily require thorough understanding of Buddhist scriptures or extensive research into teachings, nor does it necessarily require seated meditation for exclusive practice. Whether walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, one can recite “Namo Amitābha Buddha.” With sufficient faith and vows, single-minded Buddha recitation, and persistent practice from beginning to end, one can be reborn in the Pure Land at the time of death. Of course, one should also maintain precepts, recite scriptures, and broadly practice good deeds as auxiliary practices.
Because the dharma gate is simple and convenient, it is most easily popularized. Scholars of other schools also mostly practice this method concurrently, thus Pure Land dharma gate has become particularly widespread in China.
7. Vinaya School
The Vinaya School mainly studies and researches precepts (vinaya). Due to this school’s prevalence, Chinese monastics, while studying Mahāyāna’s three studies of precepts, concentration, and wisdom, still emphasize the Śrāvaka vehicle precepts for renunciants.
There are Śrāvaka precepts and Bodhisattva precepts. The Vinaya School referred to here is based on the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya from the Śrāvaka vinaya section, established by the lineage of Vinaya Master Daoxuan of Zhongnan Mountain. Regarding precept items and characteristics, there are divisions of five precepts, ten precepts, and full ordination precepts.
The five precepts are precepts maintained by both renunciant and lay Buddhist disciples. The ten precepts and full ordination precepts are maintained by renunciant disciples – these have been described previously and won’t be repeated here. Each vinaya collection contains not only precept characteristics and circumstances of precept establishment, but largely consists of monastic community regulations, various karma procedures (meeting protocols), renunciation procedures, ordination procedures, retreat procedures, confession procedures, robes and food regulations, as well as detailed regulations for daily life minutiae. Due to temporal and environmental differences, many vinaya regulations have long been abandoned.
Bodhisattva precepts include lay Bodhisattva precepts and renunciant Bodhisattva precepts. Renunciant Bodhisattva precepts such as the Brahmajāla Sutra have ten major and forty-eight minor precepts. Lay Bodhisattva precepts such as the Upāsaka Precepts Sutra have six major and twenty-eight minor precepts. Also, Bodhisattva precepts are comprehensively categorized into three groups, meaning three categories, called the Three Pure Precept Groups: 1) Precepts restraining wrongdoing – these are precept characteristics, meaning “commit no evil”; 2) Precepts gathering good dharmas – meaning “practice all good”; 3) Precepts benefiting sentient beings – meaning “benefit all sentient beings.” China follows Mahāyāna Buddhism, so Bodhisattva precepts are briefly mentioned here. The above covers the content of both Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna precepts.
Although the Four-Part Vinaya belongs to Hīnayāna precepts, its text and meaning connect with Mahāyāna, hence the ancient saying “parts connecting with Mahāyāna.” China emphasizes Mahāyāna, using Mahāyāna doctrine to interpret vinaya collections, incorporating lesser into greater – this becomes part of Mahāyāna precepts, the restraining wrongdoing precepts among renunciant Bodhisattvas’ Three Pure Precept Groups.
Precepts are based on Śrāvaka precepts as foundation. The four root precepts of killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech are commonly observed by both Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna. For vinaya studies research, most important is skillfully distinguishing opening, restraining, maintaining, and violating. Among renunciant precepts, what originally cannot be violated, but under certain circumstances can be permitted, is called “opening.” What cannot be violated under normal circumstances is called “restraining.” Under certain circumstances, when one doesn’t know whether maintaining precepts or violating them, this requires vinaya study. Vinaya masters, based on vinaya collections, clearly distinguish and determine the boundaries of opening, restraining, maintaining, and violating.
Among Śrāvaka precepts, except for the four root precepts (killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech), or possibly adding thirteen saṃghāvaśeṣa (for nuns: eight root, seventeen saṃghāvaśeṣa) which must be strictly observed without violation, the vast majority of other precepts can be permitted under special and necessary circumstances. For example, the “non-timely eating” precept normally means not eating after noon, but after labor one may eat. However, how to permit this must be determined according to precepts. This shows Buddhist precepts are not rigid – except for fundamental precepts, all have flexibility.
8. Esoteric School (Shingon School)
In the 8th century, Indian esoteric Buddhism was transmitted to China by Śubhakarasiṃha, Vajrabodhi, Amoghavajra and others. From then on, cultivation and transmission formed the Esoteric School. This school, based on the Mahāvairocana Sutra and Vajraśekhara Sutra, established Three Mysteries yoga, phenomenal-noumenal contemplative practice, and honzon (principal deity) methods. This school, because its esoteric methods are mysterious and cannot be arbitrarily transmitted or displayed to others without initiation and transmission, is called Esoteric School.
Honzon means practitioners select one Buddha, one Bodhisattva, or one Wisdom King whom they most revere and respect as the object or model for learning and achievement – this is called honzon. To achieve all the honzon’s merit and wisdom requires practicing Three Mysteries yoga methods. Three Mysteries are body, speech, and mind – the three activities. Yoga translates as “correspondence.” Three Mysteries yoga means three activities’ correspondence – the practitioner’s own body, speech, and mind corresponding with the honzon’s body, speech, and mind activities.
During practice, practitioners must bodily assume the honzon’s posture, form hand seals with hands, orally recite the honzon’s mantra, and mentally contemplate the honzon or seed syllables, ensuring their three activities correspond with the honzon’s Three Mysteries – this is called yoga practice. If this method is mastered, one can achieve the honzon’s body in this very life. Esoteric Buddhism has many practice methods – this is just one example.
This school’s highest theory is still based on the dharma-nature essence of inherent emptiness and characteristiclessness. The so-called “A-syllable originally unborn” – unborn means emptiness.
9. Other Schools Beyond the Eight Schools
Beyond the eight schools, there is a school based primarily on the Abhidharmakośa called Abhidharmakośa School, and a school specializing in the Satyasiddhi-śāstra called Satyasiddhi School. Both Satyasiddhi and Abhidharmakośa belong to Hīnayāna teachings and were not very popular after the Tang dynasty. Adding these two schools to the eight schools makes ten schools.
Additionally, there were Nirvana masters promoting the Nirvana Sutra, Shelun masters specializing in the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, and Dilun masters specializing in the Daśabhūmika-śāstra Commentary. These schools all flourished for a time but soon lost their transmission or merged into other schools.
10. Transmission and Changes of Various Schools
The development of various schools was uneven, with different patterns of development and change. Some schools initially spread widely but gradually declined – this describes the Sanlun School. After being vigorously promoted by Fālang of Xinghuang Temple and Jízàng of Jiaxiang during the Chen and Sui dynasties, during Chen, Sui, and early Tang, its transmission was so widespread it almost covered the entire country, but afterward gradually declined.
Some initially had limited transmission but later became very popular. The Tiantai School, after Tiantai Zhìyǐ and Zhāng’ān Chéngzōng, had transmission areas limited only to southeastern Zhejiang, with master-disciple transmission hanging by a thread. Over a hundred years later, with Jīngxī Zhànrán, it began what was called revival.
Some schools developed and transmitted continuously without ever declining – this describes Chan School. This school’s accomplished practitioners mostly lived in mountain forests, farming and eating by their own labor, having little dependence on society and not requiring many texts. Therefore, even during the Huichang persecution, it was little affected, continuing its transmission with great development.
Some schools experienced extinction and revival. Many schools were like this. Before the Huichang persecution, various schools had successively arisen. Comparatively, though each had different periods of flourishing and decline, they all simultaneously flourished in the world. During the late 9th century Tang Emperor Wuzong’s Huichang (845) persecution, all scriptures and Buddha images were almost completely destroyed, and various schools’ commentaries and texts were mostly lost.
In the 10th century, Tiantai School texts were transmitted back from Korea, and Xianshou School texts were also partially restored. Tiantai and Xianshou schools revived again. Many Madhyamaka, Yogācāra, and Esoteric texts were transmitted to foreign lands. By the late Qing period, commentaries of the Faxing and Faxiang schools returned to China from Japan.
Over the past half-century, all eight schools have had people researching and lecturing on them, showing signs of revival. Observing the history of all schools: Sui and Tang were the era of various schools’ emergence and peak prosperity. After the Huichang persecution, except for Chan School, it was an era of various schools’ decline. Slightly later appeared the revival of Tiantai and Xianshou schools and Chan School’s vigorous development – this was Buddhism’s revival period, but without the grandeur of early and middle Tang.
From the Yuan dynasty onward, Tibetan Buddhism was transmitted to inland China and received great imperial reverence, but did not spread among the people. At this time, Han Chinese Buddhism was already less prosperous than during the Song dynasty. During the Qing dynasty, Han Chinese Buddhism had no special characteristics, merely maintaining its existing legacy.
Glossary
Parikalpita (Imagined Nature): The Faxiang School (also called Consciousness-Only School) divides all phenomena in the universe into three natures: parikalpita, paratantra, and pariniṣpanna. Universally calculating all dharmas, then becoming deludedly attached in a topsy-turvy way, considering them as existent or non-existent, is called parikalpita. All dharmas have no inherent nature and cannot arise independently, requiring the gathering of various conditions before arising, called paratantra. The fundamental essence of dharmas, called dharma-nature or true suchness, eternally abiding and pervading the ten directions, possessing the nature of perfect achievement and true reality, is called pariniṣpanna. Among these, parikalpita is false existence, paratantra is provisional existence, and pariniṣpanna is true existence.
One Mind Three Contemplations: Also called Perfect Interpenetration Three Contemplations, Inconceivable Three Contemplations, Non-sequential Three Contemplations, etc. This is the contemplation method of Tiantai School’s Perfect Teaching. Tiantai School says all phenomena in the universe possess three kinds of truth principles – emptiness, provisional, and middle – and these three truth principles interpenetrate mutually. Emptiness is provisional and middle, provisional is emptiness and middle, middle is emptiness and provisional. If we contemplate in this way within one mind, it is called One Mind Three Contemplations.
Separate Transmission Outside the Teachings: Chan School does not establish written words or arrange verbal expressions, directly transmitting Buddha-patriarch mind-seal, called separate transmission outside the teachings, meaning separate transmission outside the Tathāgata’s verbal teachings.
Gradual Cultivation: Refers to being unable to immediately awaken upon hearing the dharma, requiring gradual realization through various cultivation practices.
Sudden Awakening: Means awakening immediately upon hearing the dharma.
Guiyang School: One of the five houses of Chinese Buddhist Chan School. Because this school’s founders Lingyou and his disciple Huiji successively propagated their teachings at Weishan in Tanzhou (in present-day western Ningxiang County, Hunan Province) and Yangshan in Yuanzhou (in present-day southern Yichun County, Jiangxi Province), later generations called it Guiyang School.
Linji School: One of the five houses of Chinese Buddhist Chan School. Because this school’s founder Yixuan propagated his teachings at Linji Chan Temple in Zhenzhou, Hebei (present-day Zhengding County, Hebei Province), later generations called it Linji School.
Caodong School: One of the five houses of Chinese Buddhist Chan School. Because this school’s founders Liangcai and his disciple Benji successively propagated their teachings at Dongshan in Gao’an County, Jiangxi and Caoshan in Jishui County, later generations called it Caodong School.
Yunmen School: One of the five houses of Chinese Buddhist Chan School. Because this school’s founder Wenyan propagated his teachings at Guangtai Chan Temple on Yunmen Mountain in Shaozhou (north of Ruyuan County, Guangdong), later generations called it Yunmen School.
Fayan School: One of the five houses of Chinese Buddhist Chan School. Because this school’s founder Wenyi was posthumously honored by Southern Tang’s Middle Ruler Li Jing with the title “Great Dharma Eye Chan Master,” later generations called it Fayan School.
Buddha Contemplation: Contemplation means visualization/contemplation.
Asaṃkhyeya Kalpa: Kalpa refers to the time of one universe’s increase and decrease, i.e., one complete process of formation, abiding, decay, and emptiness. Asaṃkhyeya means countless.
Namo Amitābha Buddha: This is the Buddha’s name commonly recited by Pure Land practitioners. Namo Amitābha Buddha – Buddha is Sanskrit transliteration, Namo means taking refuge. Amitābha Buddha means infinite life. The complete translation means “taking refuge in Infinite Life.”
Five Precepts: Not killing, not stealing, not committing sexual misconduct, not lying, not drinking alcohol. Not killing means not harming life; not stealing means not taking others’ property; not committing sexual misconduct means not engaging in sexual relations outside marriage; not lying means not speaking deceptive words to trick people; not drinking alcohol means not consuming intoxicating substances including alcohol and drugs.
Ten Precepts: Not killing, not stealing, not engaging in sexual conduct, not lying, not drinking alcohol, not wearing garlands or applying fragrant cosmetics, not singing, dancing, or watching performances, not sitting on high, wide, large beds, not eating at improper times, not handling money, gold, silver, or precious objects.
Full Ordination Precepts: Complete and perfect precepts, such as the 250 precepts for monks and 348 precepts for nuns.
Honzon (Principal Deity): The fundamental principal honored one. Refers to what practitioners depend upon in Buddhist practice – originally existing from beginningless time and supreme and most honored in the supramundane realm. Or refers to the special and primary one among various honored images enshrined in a hall or temple, honored as fundamental. Also called central honored one to distinguish from attendant
